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Roman from the 4th century AD This article contains. Without proper , you may see. The history of glass-making can be traced back to 3500 BC in. However, they may have been producing second-rate copies of glass objects from , where this complex craft originated. Other archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or Egypt. The earliest known glass objects, of the mid second millennium BC, were beads, perhaps initially created as the accidental by-products of or during the production of , a pre-glass material made by a process similar to. Glass products remained a luxury until the disasters that overtook the civilizations seemingly brought glass-making to a halt. Development of glass technology in may have begun in 1730 BC. In ancient China, though, glass-making seems to have had a late start compared to ceramics and metal work. From across the former archaeologists have recovered glass objects that were used in domestic, industrial and contexts. Glass in the was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was even used in jewelry. Naturally occurring , especially the glass , has been used by many societies across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, was extensively traded. But in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north , or. Because of Egypt's favorable environment for preservation, the majority of well-studied early glass is found there, although some of this is likely to have been imported. The earliest known glass objects, of the mid-third millennium BC, were beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of or during the production of , a pre-glass material made by a process similar to. During the in e. Archaeological finds from this period include colored glass , vessels often colored and shaped in imitation of highly prized in and the ubiquitous beads. The of Syrian and Egyptian glass was , which can be extracted from the ashes of many plants, notably seashore plants like. The latest vessels were 'core-formed', produced by winding a ductile rope of glass around a shaped core of sand and clay over a metal rod, then fusing it with repeated reheatings. Threads of thin glass of different colors made with admixtures of were subsequently wound around these to create patterns, which could be drawn into festoons by using metal raking tools. The vessel would then be rolled smooth on a slab in order to press the decorative threads into its body. Handles and feet were applied separately. The rod was subsequently allowed to cool as the glass slowly and was eventually removed from the center of the vessel, after which the core material was scraped out. Glass shapes for were also often created in moulds. Much early glass production, however, relied on grinding techniques borrowed from stone working. This meant that the glass was ground and carved in a cold state. It is thought that the techniques and recipes required for the initial fusing of glass from raw materials was a closely guarded reserved for the large palace industries of powerful states. Glass workers in other areas therefore relied on imports of preformed glass, often in the form of cast ingots such as those found on the off the coast of modern. An early 18th-century goblet with coats of arms in the District Museum in is one of the highest 54. The goblet was almost entirely covered with a pattern of so-called carp scales and hand-engraved decoration. Glass remained a luxury material, and the that overtook civilizations seem to have brought glass-making to a halt. It picked up again in its former sites, Syria and Cyprus, in the 9th century BC, when the techniques for making colorless glass were discovered. Instructions on how to make glass are contained in tablets discovered in the library of the king. In Egypt glass-making did not revive until it was reintroduced in. Core-formed vessels and beads were still widely produced, but other techniques came to the fore with experimentation and technological advancements. During the period many new techniques of glass production were introduced and glass began to be used to make larger pieces, notably table wares. Techniques developed during this period include 'slumping' but not fully molten glass over a mould in order to form a dish and '' meaning 'thousand flowers' technique, where canes of multicolored glass were sliced and the slices arranged together and fused in a mould to create a mosaic-like effect. It was also during this period that colorless or decolored glass began to be prized and methods for achieving this effect were investigated more fully. According to , traders were the first to stumble upon glass manufacturing techniques at the site of the. During the 1st century BC was discovered on the Syro-Judean coast, revolutionizing the industry. Glass vessels were now inexpensive compared to pottery vessels. A growth of the use of glass products occurred throughout the Roman world. With the discovery of clear glass through the introduction of , by glass blowers in Alexandria circa 100 AD, the Romans began to use glass for architectural purposes. Cast glass windows, albeit with poor optical qualities, began to appear in the most important buildings in Rome and the most luxurious villas of and. Over the next 1,000 years, glass making and working continued and spread through southern Europe and beyond. India Indian development of glass technology in may have begun in 1730 BC. Evidence of this culture includes a red-brown glass bead along with a hoard of beads dating to that period, making it the earliest attested glass from the locations. Glass discovered from later sites dating from 600—300 BC displays common colors. Some of the texts which mention glass in India are the and. However, the first unmistakable evidence in large quantities, dating from the 3rd century BC, has been uncovered from the in , , with bangles, beads, small vessels, and tiles discovered in quantity. By the 1st century AD, glass was being used for ornaments and casing in South Asia. Contact with the added newer techniques, and Indians artisans mastered several techniques of glass molding, decorating and coloring by the succeeding centuries. The period of India also produced short cylinders of composite glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass. China Blue glass plaques found in the , dating from late 2nd century BC In Chinese history, glass played a peripheral role in the arts and crafts, when compared to ceramics and metal work. The limited archaeological distribution and use of glass objects are evidence of the rarity of the material. Literary sources date the first manufacture of glass to the 5th century AD. However, the earliest archaeological evidence for glass manufacture in China comes from the 475 BC to 221 BC. Chinese learned to manufacture glass comparably later than the Mesopotamians, Egyptians and Indians. These imports created the impetus for the production of indigenous glass beads. During the Han period 206 BC to 220 AD the use of glass diversified. The introduction of glass casting in this period encouraged the production of moulded objects, such as bi disks and other ritual objects. The Chinese glass objects from the Warring States period and vary greatly in chemical composition from the imported glass objects. The glasses from this period contain high levels of BaO and , distinguishing them from the soda-lime-silica glasses of Western Asia and Mesopotamia. At the end of the Han Dynasty AD 220 , the lead-barium glass tradition declined, with glass production only resuming during the 4th and 5th centuries AD. Romans Main article: Roman glass production developed from technical traditions, initially concentrating on the production of intensely colored cast glass vessels. Glass objects have been recovered across the in domestic, and industrial contexts. Production of raw glass was undertaken in geographically separate locations to the working of glass into finished vessels, and by the end of the 1st century AD large scale manufacturing, primarily in Alexandria, resulted in the establishment of glass as a commonly available material in the Roman world. Islamic world Main article: Islamic glass continued the achievements of pre-Islamic cultures, especially the of. By the 11th century, clear glass were being produced in. Medieval Europe A 16th-century stained glass window The Roman tradition of very fine glassmaking did not continue in the Middle Ages, and and other regional traditions were mainly functional pieces, mostly somewhat crude. The was popular as a relatively easy to make but impressive vessel that exploited the unique potential of glass. Only at the end of the period did European glass vessels once again become very fine in quality, imitating those imported from the Islamic world. Glass objects from the 7th and 8th centuries have been found on the island of near. These form an important link between Roman times and the later importance of that city in the production of the material. Around 1000 AD, an important technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass, produced from white pebbles and burnt vegetation was replaced by glass made from a much more readily available material: obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use. Until the 12th century, — glass to which metallic or other impurities had been added for coloring — was not widely used, but it rapidly became an important medium for and especially. Almost all survivals are in church buildings, but it was also used in grand secular buildings. The 11th century saw the emergence in of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing spheres. The spheres were swung out to form cylinders and then cut while still hot, after which the sheets were flattened. This technique was perfected in 13th century. The was used up to the mid-19th century. In this process, the would spin approximately 9 4 kg of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately 5 feet 1. The disk would then be cut into panes. Domestic glass vessels in late medieval Northern Europe are known as. Anglo-Saxon world Main article: Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was even used in jewelry. In the 5th century AD with the , there were also considerable changes in the usage of glass. Excavation of sites have revealed plentiful amounts of glass but, in contrast, the amount recovered from 5th century and later Anglo-Saxon sites is minuscule. The majority of complete vessels and assemblages of beads come from the excavations of early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, but a change in burial rites in the late 7th century affected the recovery of glass, as Christian Anglo-Saxons were buried with fewer grave goods, and glass is rarely found. From the late 7th century onwards, window glass is found more frequently. This is directly related to the introduction of and the construction of churches and monasteries. There are a few Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical literary sources that mention the production and use of glass, although these relate to window glass used in ecclesiastical buildings. Glass was also used by the Anglo-Saxons in their jewelry, both as enamel or as cut glass insets. Murano Main articles: and The center for luxury Italian glassmaking from the 14th century was the island of , which developed many new techniques and became the center of a lucrative export trade in , , and other items. What made Venetian significantly different was that the local quartz pebbles were almost pure silica, and were ground into a fine clear sand that was combined with obtained from the , for which the Venetians held the sole. The clearest and finest glass is tinted in two ways: firstly, a natural coloring agent is ground and melted with the glass. Many of these coloring agents still exist today; for a list of coloring agents, see below. Black glass was called obsidianus after obsidian stone. A second method is apparently to produce a black glass which, when held to the light, will show the true color that this glass will give to another glass when used as a dye. The Venetian ability to produce this superior form of glass resulted in a trade advantage over other glass producing lands. Glassmakers were not allowed to leave the Republic. Many took a risk and set up glass furnaces in surrounding cities and as far afield as England and the Netherlands. Bohemia Main article: , or Bohemia crystal, is a decorative produced in regions of and , now in the current state of the , since the 13th century. Oldest archaeology excavations of glass-making sites date to around 1250 and are located in the of Northern Bohemia. Most notable sites of glass-making throughout the ages are : Langenau , : Steinschönau and : Haida. Both Nový Bor and Kamenický Šenov have their own Glass Museums with many items dating since around 1600. It was especially outstanding in its manufacture of glass in high style from 1685 to 1750. In the 17th century, , cutter to in , adapted to glass the technique of gem engraving with and wheels. A very important advance in glass manufacture was the technique of adding lead oxide to the molten glass; this improved the appearance of the glass and made it easier to melt using as a furnace fuel. The process was first discovered by in 1674, who was the first to produce clear lead crystal glassware on an industrial scale. Ravenscroft had the cultural and financial resources necessary to revolutionise the glass trade, allowing England to overtake Venice as the centre of the glass industry in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Seeking to find an alternative to Venetian cristallo, he used , but his glasses tended to crizzle, developing a network of small cracks destroying its transparency. This was eventually overcome by replacing some of the potash flux with lead oxide to the melt. He was granted a protective patent in 1673, where production and refinement moved from his glasshouse on the Savoy to the seclusion of. By 1696, after the patent expired, twenty-seven glasshouses in England were producing flint glass and were exporting all over with such success that, in 1746, the British Government imposed a on it. Rather than drastically reduce the lead content of their glass, manufacturers responded by creating highly decorated, smaller, more delicate forms, often with hollow stems, known to collectors today as Excise glasses. The British glass making industry was able to take off with the repeal of the tax in 1845. Evidence of the use of the method dates back to 1620 in London and was used for mirrors and coach plates. Louis Lucas de Nehou and A. Thevart perfected the process of casting in 1688 in France. De Nehou's process of rolling molten glass poured on an iron table rendered the manufacture of very large plates possible. This method of production was adopted by the English in 1773 at. The polishing process was industrialized around 1800 with the adoption of a steam engine to carry out the grinding and polishing of the cast glass. Industrial production The façade of , one of the first buildings to use glass as a main material for construction. The use of glass as a building material was heralded by of 1851, built by to house the. Paxton's revolutionary new building inspired the public use of glass as a material for domestic and horticultural architecture. In 1832, the later became the first company to adopt the to produce sheet glass with the expertise of , a famous French glassmaker. This glass was produced by blowing long cylinders of glass, which were then cut along the length and then flattened onto a cast-iron table, before being annealed. Plate glass involves the glass being ladled onto a cast-iron bed, where it is rolled into a sheet with an iron roller. The sheet, still soft, is pushed into the open mouth of an annealing tunnel or temperature-controlled oven called a , down which it was carried by a system of rollers. James Hartley introduced the Rolled Plate method in 1847. This allowed a ribbed finish and was often used for extensive glass roofs such as within railway stations. An early advance in automating glass manufacturing was patented in 1848 by the engineer. His system produced a continuous ribbon of flat glass by forming the ribbon between rollers. This was an expensive process, as the surfaces of the glass needed polishing and was later abandoned by its sponsor, Robert Lucas Chance of Chance Brothers, as unviable. In 1887, the mass production of glass was developed by the firm Ashley in ,. This semi-automatic process used machines that were capable of producing 200 standardized bottles per hour, many times quicker than the traditional methods of manufacture. Chance Brothers also introduced the machine rolled patterned glass method in 1888. In 1898, invented Wired Cast glass, where the glass incorporates a strong steel-wire mesh for safety and security. The was invented in the USA and was the first mechanical method for the drawing of window glass. It was manufactured under licence in the UK by from 1910 onwards. In 1938, the was improved by which incorporated a double grinding process to give an improved quality to the finish. Between 1953 and 1957, Sir and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers developed the revolutionary process, the first successful commercial application for forming a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. This method gave the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces. Modern are made from float glass. Most float glass is , but relatively minor quantities of specialty and glass are also produced using the float glass process. The success of this process lay in the careful balance of the volume of glass fed onto the bath, where it was flattened by its own weight. Full scale profitable sales of float glass were first achieved in 1960. Archived from on April 15, 2011. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. GOF IV, Bd 44, Wiesbaden 2003, 25—26. Word study tool for ancient languages. Retrieved 7 July 2014. A history of glassmaking. An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology. An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology. XI-XIV in Braghin, C. Archaeological studies on the uses and social contest of glass artefacts from the Warring States to the Northern Song Period fifth century B. University of Pennsylvania Press. Archaeological studies on the uses and social contest of glass artefacts from the Warring States to the Northern Song Period fifth century B. Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Archaeological studies on the uses and social contest of glass artefacts from the Warring States to the Northern Song Period fifth century B. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. American Journal of Archaeology. Glass in Britain and Ireland AD 350—1100. London: British Museum Occasional paper 127. Glass in Britain and Ireland AD 350—1100. London: British Museum Occasional paper 127. Vince eds Medieval Europe 1992: Volume 3 Technology and Innovation. Glass in Britain and Ireland AD 350—1100. London: British Museum Occasional paper 127. In Annales du 7e congrès international d'etude historique du verre: Berlin, Leipzig, 15—21 August 1977: Liège: Editions du Secretariat Général. Bandy, Mineralogical Society of America, 1955, p. Butterworth — Heinemann Series in Conservation and Museology. Society of Glass Technology. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. Priority date December 10, 1953.
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